Īllport GW (1954) The nature of prejudice. Patterns Prejudice 47:235–252Īllen C (2017) Britain must address the pervasive ‘white noise’ against Muslims. Collectively, we use the terms Islamophobic, anti-Islamic and anti-Muslim to refer to online and offline incidents that are perceived to express prejudice or hostility towards Muslim people.Īlam Y, Husband C (2013) Islamophobia, community cohesion and counter-terrorism policies in Britain. In addition, the term anti-Muslim will be used when referring to the work of authors who have made specific reference to such terminology within their scholarship. ![]() In this paper, we use the terms Islamophobic (used by the Metropolitan Police Service when flagging such hate crimes) and anti-Islamic (terminology that describes our Twitter data) predominantly. This debate is currently still ongoing and is in need of further scrutiny in the future however, as Irfan ( 2021) states: ‘If the debate continues to focus on which term better describes the same phenomenon, we run the risk of getting lost in specifics of wordings and of policies and actions never being approved because no one can define them in one way’. Sikhs) or mosques/schools as targets of such hate crimes/incidents (Irfan 2021). Recently, the debate has shifted towards considering the term anti-Muslim, which refers more specifically to antipathy towards Muslims, but which has also been criticized for not encompassing non-Muslims (e.g. Critique of using the term Islamophobia to describe our Twitter dataset included ‘conflat criticism of an idea (Islam) with abuse of people (Muslims), and that words like Islamophobia are used to shut down any kind of criticism of Islam’ (Miller 2016). Concerns include the vague nature of the term and that it ‘target expressions of Muslimness or ‘perceived Muslimness’, rather than bigotry against Muslim individuals themselves’ (Malik 2019). We want to acknowledge here that there is still an ongoing debate about using the term Islamophobia (see, e.g., Irfan 2021). ![]() Such a situation represents the compounding of hate and hostility through offline and online networks that are likely to be reinforcing. Our findings likely point to what we have referred to as compound retaliation, which suggests that media and social media dissemination about offline acts of hate compound already tense intergroup hostilities, providing further permission for those to express hatred online. Our study examined the ‘everyday’ incidents of (online and offline) hate that affect communities throughout the United Kingdom and we found that anti-Islamic hate speech followed rather than preceded Islamophobic hate offline. This study is unique in its use of newly developed technology to undertake big data analysis with recent, disaggregated online and offline hate data. ![]() We used data on hateful Twitter content, and hate incidents and hate crimes/offences recorded by the Metropolitan Police Service in the United Kingdom to analyse this association, using time-series analysis. ![]() The aim of the present study is to explore whether there is a temporal association between anti-Islamic online and offline hate, and if so in which direction.
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